Anode-protecting layer for a lithium metal secondary battery and manufacturing method

ABSTRACT

Provided is a lithium secondary battery, comprising a cathode, an anode, and a porous separator or electrolyte disposed between the cathode and the anode, wherein the anode comprises: (a) an anode active layer containing a layer of lithium or lithium alloy, in a form of a foil, coating, or multiple particles aggregated together, as an anode active material; and (b) a thin layer of a high-elasticity polymer, disposed between the anode active layer and the porous separator or electrolyte; the polymer having a recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 1,500%, a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10 −6  S/cm (typically up to 5×10 −2  S/cm) at room temperature, and a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, wherein the high-elasticity polymer contains a polyrotaxane network having a rotaxane structure or a polyrotaxane structure at a crosslink point of the polyrotaxane network.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the field of rechargeable lithium metal battery having a lithium metal layer (in a form of thin lithium foil, coating, or sheet of lithium particles) as an anode active material and a method of manufacturing same.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Lithium-ion and lithium (Li) metal cells (including Lithium-sulfur cell, Li-air cell, etc.) are considered promising power sources for electric vehicle (EV), hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), and portable electronic devices, such as lap-top computers and mobile phones. Lithium metal has the highest capacity (3,861 mAh/g) compared to any other metal or metal-intercalated compound (except Li_(4.4)Si) as an anode active material. Hence, in general, rechargeable Li metal batteries have a significantly higher energy density than lithium ion batteries.

Historically, rechargeable lithium metal batteries were produced using non-lithiated compounds having high specific capacities, such as TiS₂, MoS₂, MnO₂, CoO₂ and V₂O₅, as the cathode active materials, which were coupled with a lithium metal anode. When the battery was discharged, lithium ions were dissolved from the lithium metal anode and transferred to the cathode through the electrolyte and, thus, the cathode became lithiated. Unfortunately, upon cycling, the lithium metal resulted in the formation of dendrites that ultimately caused unsafe conditions in the battery. As a result, the production of these types of secondary batteries was stopped in the early 1990's giving ways to lithium-ion batteries.

Even now, cycling stability and safety concerns remain the primary factors preventing the further commercialization of Li metal batteries for EV, HEV, and microelectronic device applications. These issues are primarily due to the high tendency for Li to form dendrite structures during repeated charge-discharge cycles or an overcharge, leading to internal electrical shorting and thermal runaway. Many attempts have been made to address the dendrite-related issues, as briefly summarized below:

Fauteux, et al. [D. Fauteux, et al., “Secondary Electrolytic Cell and Electrolytic Process,” U.S. Pat. No. 5,434,021, Jul. 18, 1995] applied to a metal anode a protective surface layer (e.g., a mixture of polynuclear aromatic and polyethylene oxide) that enables transfer of metal ions from the metal anode to the electrolyte and back. The surface layer is also electronically conductive so that the ions will be uniformly attracted back onto the metal anode during electrodeposition (i.e. during battery recharge). Alamgir, et al. [M. Alamgir, et al. “Solid polymer electrolyte batteries containing metallocenes,” U.S. Pat. No. 5,536,599, Jul. 16, 1996] used ferrocenes to prevent chemical overcharge and dendrite formation in a solid polymer electrolyte-based rechargeable battery.

Skotheim [T. A. Skotheim, “Stabilized Anode for Lithium-Polymer Battery,” U.S. Pat. No. 5,648,187 (Jul. 15, 1997); U.S. Pat. No. 5,961,672 (Oct. 5, 1999)] provided a Li metal anode that was stabilized against the dendrite formation by the use of a vacuum-evaporated thin film of a Li ion-conducting polymer interposed between the Li metal anode and the electrolyte. Skotheim, et al. [T. A. Skotheim, et al. “Lithium Anodes for Electrochemical Cells,” U.S. Pat. No. 6,733,924 (May 11, 2004); U.S. Pat. No. 6,797,428 (Sep. 28, 2004); U.S. Pat. No. 6,936,381 (Aug. 30, 2005); and U.S. Pat. No. 7,247,408 (Jul. 24, 2007)] further proposed a multilayer anode structure consisting of a Li metal-based first layer, a second layer of a temporary protective metal (e.g., Cu, Mg, and Al), and a third layer that is composed of at least one layer (typically 2 or more layers) of a single ion-conducting glass, such as lithium silicate and lithium phosphate, or polymer. It is clear that such an anode structure, consisting of at least 3 or 4 layers, is too complex and too costly to make and use.

Protective coatings for Li anodes, such as glassy surface layers of LiI— Li₃PO₄—P₂S₅, may be obtained from plasma assisted deposition [S. J. Visco, et al., “Protective Coatings for Negative Electrodes,” U.S. Pat. No. 6,025,094 (Feb. 15, 2000)]. Complex, multi-layer protective coatings were also proposed by Visco, et al. [S. J. Visco, et al., “Protected Active Metal Electrode and Battery Cell Structures with Non-aqueous Interlayer Architecture,” U.S. Pat. No. 7,282,295 (Oct. 16, 2007); U.S. Pat. No. 7,282,296 (Oct. 16, 2007); and U.S. Pat. No. 7,282,302 (Oct. 16, 2007)].

Despite these earlier efforts, no rechargeable Li metal batteries have yet succeeded in the market place. This is likely due to the notion that these prior art approaches still have major deficiencies. For instance, in several cases, the anode or electrolyte structures are too complex. In others, the materials are too costly or the processes for making these materials are too laborious or difficult. Solid electrolytes typically have a low lithium ion conductivity, are difficult to produce and difficult to implement into a battery.

Furthermore, solid electrolyte, as the sole electrolyte in a cell or as an anode-protecting layer (interposed between the lithium film and the liquid electrolyte) does not have and cannot maintain a good contact with the lithium metal. This effectively reduces the effectiveness of the electrolyte to support dissolution of lithium ions (during battery discharge), transport lithium ions, and allowing the lithium ions to re-deposit back to the lithium anode (during battery recharge).

Another major issue associated with the lithium metal anode is the continuing reactions between electrolyte and lithium metal, leading to repeated formation of “dead lithium-containing species” that cannot be re-deposited back to the anode and become isolated from the anode. These reactions continue to irreversibly consume electrolyte and lithium metal, resulting in rapid capacity decay. In order to compensate for this continuing loss of lithium metal, an excessive amount of lithium metal (3-5 times higher amount than what would be required) is typically implemented at the anode when the battery is made. This adds not only costs but also a significant weight and volume to a battery, reducing the energy density of the battery cell. This important issue has been largely ignored and there has been no plausible solution to this problem in battery industry.

Clearly, an urgent need exists for a simpler, more cost-effective, and easier to implement approach to preventing Li metal dendrite-induced internal short circuit and thermal runaway problems in Li metal batteries, and to reducing or eliminating the detrimental reactions between lithium metal and the electrolyte.

Hence, an object of the present invention was to provide an effective way to overcome the lithium metal dendrite and reaction problems in all types of Li metal batteries having a lithium metal anode. A specific object of the present invention was to provide a lithium metal cell that exhibits a high specific capacity, high specific energy, high degree of safety, and a long and stable cycle life.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Herein reported is a lithium secondary battery, comprising a cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte or separator-electrolyte assembly disposed between the cathode and the anode, wherein the anode comprises: (a) a layer of lithium or lithium alloy (in the form of a foil, coating, or multiple particles aggregated together) as an anode active material; and (b) a thin layer of a high-elasticity polymer having a recoverable tensile strain no less than 2%, a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10⁻⁶ S/cm at room temperature, and a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, wherein the high-elasticity polymer is disposed between the lithium or lithium alloy layer and the electrolyte or separator-electrolyte assembly layer. The foil or coating of lithium or lithium alloy may be supported by a current collector (e.g. a Cu foil, a Ni foam, a porous layer of nanofilaments, such as graphene sheets, carbon nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, etc.). A porous separator may not be necessary if the electrolyte is a solid-state electrolyte.

High-elasticity polymer refers to a polymer, typically a lightly cross-linked polymer, which exhibits an elastic deformation that is at least 2% (preferably at least 5%) when measured under uniaxial tension. In the field of materials science and engineering, the “elastic deformation” is defined as a deformation of a material (when being mechanically stressed) that is essentially fully recoverable upon release of the load and the recovery process is essentially instantaneous (no or little time delay). The elastic deformation is more preferably greater than 10%, even more preferably greater than 30%, further more preferably greater than 50%, and still more preferably greater than 100%.

In some preferred embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer contains a polyrotaxane network having a rotaxane structure or a polyrotaxane structure at a crosslink point of said polyrotaxane network.

Preferably, the rotaxane structure or polyrotaxane structure is selected from rotaxane, a chemically modified rotaxane (rotaxane derivative), a polymer-grafted rotaxane, polyrotaxane, a co-polymer of polyrotaxane, a graft polymer of polyrotaxane, a polymer blend of polymer of polyrotaxane, a chemically modified polyrotaxane, or a combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, the polyrotaxane network contains a polymer selected from polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, polyethylene oxide, polypropylene oxide, poly (succinic acid), an aliphatic polyester, or a combination thereof.

This high-elasticity polymer layer may be a thin film disposed against a lithium foil/coating layer surface or a thin coating deposited on the lithium foil/coating surface. It may be noted that lithium foil/coating layer may decrease in thickness due to dissolution of lithium into the electrolyte to become lithium ions as the lithium battery is discharged, creating a gap between the current collector and the protective layer if the protective layer were not elastic. Such a gap would make the re-deposition of lithium ions back to the anode impossible. We have observed that the instant high-elasticity polymer is capable of expanding or shrinking congruently or conformably with the anode layer. This capability helps to maintain a good contact between the current collector (or the lithium film itself) and the protective layer, enabling the re-deposition of lithium ions without interruption.

In certain embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer contains an electrically conductive material (i.e. electron-conducting material) dispersed therein or mixed therewith. The electrically conducting material may be selected from an electron-conducting polymer, a metal particle or wire (or metal nano-wire), a graphene sheet, a carbon fiber, a graphite fiber, a carbon nanofiber, a graphite nanofiber, a carbon nanotube, a graphite particle, an expanded graphite flake, an acetylene black particle, or a combination thereof. The electrically conducting material (e.g. metal nano-wire, nanofiber, etc.) preferably has a thickness or diameter less than 100 nm.

The lithium salt dispersed in the high-elasticity polymer may be preferably selected from lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆), lithium borofluoride (LiBF₄), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂), lithium bis(oxalato)borate(LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃), Li-Fluoroalkyl-Phosphates (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro-ethysulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulphonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulphonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.

At the anode side, preferably and typically, the high-elasticity polymer for the protective layer has a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10⁻⁵ S/cm, more preferably no less than 10⁻⁴ S/cm, and most preferably no less than 10⁻³ S/cm. Some of the selected polymers exhibit a lithium-ion conductivity greater than 10⁻² S/cm. In some embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer is a neat polymer containing no additive or filler dispersed therein. In others, the high-elasticity polymer is a polymer matrix composite containing from 0.1% to 50% by weight (preferably from 1% to 35% by weight) of a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in a polymer matrix material. In some embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer contains from 0.1% by weight to 10% by weight of a reinforcement nanofilament selected from carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, graphene, or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer is mixed with an elastomer (to form a blend, co-polymer, or interpenetrating network) selected from natural polyisoprene (e.g. cis-1,4-polyisoprene natural rubber (NR) and trans-1,4-polyisoprene gutta-percha), synthetic polyisoprene (IR for isoprene rubber), polybutadiene (BR for butadiene rubber), chloroprene rubber (CR), polychloroprene (e.g. Neoprene, Baypren etc.), butyl rubber (copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene, IIR), including halogenated butyl rubbers (chloro butyl rubber (CIIR) and bromo butyl rubber (BIIR), styrene-butadiene rubber (copolymer of styrene and butadiene, SBR), nitrile rubber (copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile, NBR), EPM (ethylene propylene rubber, a copolymer of ethylene and propylene), EPDM rubber (ethylene propylene diene rubber, a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene and a diene-component), epichlorohydrin rubber (ECO), polyacrylic rubber (ACM, ABR), silicone rubber (SI, Q, VMQ), fluorosilicone rubber (FVMQ), fluoroelastomers (FKM, and FEPM; such as Viton, Tecnoflon, Fluorel, Aflas and Dai-El), perfluoroelastomers (FFKM: Tecnoflon PFR, Kalrez, Chemraz, Perlast), polyether block amides (PEBA), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSM; e.g. Hypalon), and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer further contains a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in a high-elasticity polymer matrix material, wherein the lithium ion-conducting additive is selected from Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, Li₂C₂O₄, LiOH, LiX, ROCO₂Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO₂Li)₂, (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂, Li₂S, Li_(x)SO_(y), or a combination thereof, wherein X═F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1 and 1≤y≤4.

The high-elasticity polymer may form a mixture, blend, co-polymer, or semi-interpenetrating network (semi-IPN) with an electron-conducting polymer selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, derivatives thereof (e.g. sulfonated versions), or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer may form a mixture, blend, or semi-IPN with a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), Polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), Poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazenex, Polyvinyl chloride, Polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof. Sulfonation is herein found to impart improved lithium ion conductivity to a polymer.

The cathode active material may be selected from an inorganic material, an organic material, a polymeric material, or a combination thereof. The inorganic material may be selected from a metal oxide, metal phosphate, metal silicide, metal selenide, metal sulfide, or a combination thereof.

The inorganic material may be selected from a lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphate, lithium metal silicide, or a combination thereof.

In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from a metal fluoride or metal chloride including the group consisting of CoF₃, MnF₃, FeF₃, VF₃, VOF₃, TiF₃, BiF₃, NiF₂, FeF₂, CuF₂, CuF, SnF₂, AgF, CuCl₂, FeCl₃, MnCl₂, and combinations thereof. In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from a lithium transition metal silicate, denoted as Li₂MSiO₄ or Li₂Ma_(x)Mb_(y)SiO₄, wherein M and Ma are selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, or VO; Mb is selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, Ti, Al, B, Sn, or Bi; and x+y≤1.

In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, or a combination thereof. The inorganic material is selected from TiS₂, TaS₂, MoS₂, NbSe₃, MnO₂, CoO₂, an iron oxide, a vanadium oxide, or a combination thereof.

The cathode active material layer may contain a metal oxide containing vanadium oxide selected from the group consisting of VO₂, Li_(x)VO₂, V₂O₅, Li_(x)V₂O₅, V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₇, V₄O₉, Li_(x)V₄O₉, V₆O₁₃, Li_(x)V₆O₁₃, their doped versions, their derivatives, and combinations thereof, wherein 0.1<x<5.

The cathode active material layer may contain a metal oxide or metal phosphate, selected from a layered compound LiMO₂, spinel compound LiM₂O₄, olivine compound LiMPO₄, silicate compound Li₂MSiO₄, Tavorite compound LiMPO₄F, borate compound LiMBO₃, or a combination thereof, wherein M is a transition metal or a mixture of multiple transition metals.

In some embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from: (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, or (e) a combination thereof.

For a lithium-sulfur cell, the cathode may contain sulfur, a sulfur-containing molecule, a sulfur compound, a lithium polysulfide, a sulfur/carbon hybrid or composite, a sulfur/graphite hybrid or composite, a sulfur/graphene hybrid or composite, a sulfur-polymer compound, or a combination thereof. For a lithium-selenium battery, the cathode contains selenium (Se) or a Se-containing compound as a cathode active material.

The cathode active material layer may contain an organic material or polymeric material selected from Poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (PAQS), a lithium oxocarbon, 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide), pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PYT), polymer-bound PYT, Quino(triazene), redox-active organic material, Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexamethoxytriphenylene (HMTP), poly(5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone) (PADAQ), phosphazene disulfide polymer ([(NPS₂)₃]n), lithiated 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetraol formaldehyde polymer, Hexaazatrinaphtylene (HATN), Hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT(CN)₆), 5-Benzylidene hydantoin, Isatine lithium salt, Pyromellitic diimide lithium salt, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone derivatives (THQLi₄), N,N′-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PHP), N,N′-diallyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (AP), N,N′-dipropyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PRP), a thioether polymer, a quinone compound, 1,4-benzoquinone, 5,7,12,14-pentacenetetrone (PT), 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADDAQ), 5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADAQ), calixquinone, Li₄C₆O₆, Li₂C₆O₆, Li₆C₆O₆, or a combination thereof.

The thioether polymer is selected from Poly[methanetetryl-tetra(thiomethylene)] (PMTTM), Poly(2,4-dithiopentanylene) (PDTP), a polymer containing Poly(ethene-1,1,2,2-tetrathiol) (PETT) as a main-chain thioether polymers, a side-chain thioether polymer having a main-chain consisting of conjugating aromatic moieties, and having a thioether side chain as a pendant, Poly(2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane) (PPDT), Poly(1,4-di(1,3-dithiolan-2-yl)benzene) (PDDTB), poly(tetrahydrobenzodithiophene) (PTHBDT), poly[1,2,4,5-tetrakis(propylthio)benzene] (PTKPTB, or poly[3,4(ethylenedithio)thiophene] (PEDTT).

In other embodiments, the cathode active material layer contains an organic material selected from a phthalocyanine compound, such as copper phthalocyanine, zinc phthalocyanine, tin phthalocyanine, iron phthalocyanine, lead phthalocyanine, nickel phthalocyanine, vanadyl phthalocyanine, fluorochromium phthalocyanine, magnesium phthalocyanine, manganous phthalocyanine, dilithium phthalocyanine, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride, cadmium phthalocyanine, chlorogallium phthalocyanine, cobalt phthalocyanine, silver phthalocyanine, a metal-free phthalocyanine, a chemical derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

The cathode active material is preferably in a form of nanoparticle (spherical, ellipsoidal, and irregular shape), nanowire, nanofiber, nanotube, nanosheet, nanobelt, nanoribbon, nanodisc, nanoplatelet, or nanohorn having a thickness or diameter less than 100 nm. These shapes can be collectively referred to as “particles” or “nanoparticles” unless otherwise specified or unless a specific type among the above species is desired. Further preferably, the cathode active material has a dimension less than 50 nm, even more preferably less than 20 nm, and most preferably less than 10 nm. In some embodiments, one particle or a cluster of particles may be coated with or embraced by a layer of carbon disposed between the particle(s) and/or a high-elasticity polymer layer (an encapsulating shell).

The cathode layer may further contain a graphite, graphene, or carbon material mixed with the cathode active material particles. The carbon or graphite material is selected from polymeric carbon, amorphous carbon, chemical vapor deposition carbon, coal tar pitch, petroleum pitch, mesophase pitch, carbon black, coke, acetylene black, activated carbon, fine expanded graphite particle with a dimension smaller than 100 nm, artificial graphite particle, natural graphite particle, or a combination thereof. Graphene may be selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, functionalized graphene, etc.

The cathode active material particles may be coated with or embraced by a conductive protective coating, selected from a carbon material, graphene, electronically conductive polymer, conductive metal oxide, or conductive metal coating. Preferably, the cathode active material, in the form of a nanoparticle, nanowire, nanofiber, nanotube, nanosheet, nanobelt, nanoribbon, nanodisc, nanoplatelet, or nanohorn is pre-intercalated or pre-doped with lithium ions to form a prelithiated anode active material having an amount of lithium from 0.1% to 54.7% by weight of said prelithiated anode active material.

The present invention also provides a lithium metal-air battery comprising an air cathode, an anode comprising a high-elasticity polymer based protective layer as defined above, and electrolyte, or electrolyte combined with a separator, disposed between the anode and the air cathode. In the air cathode, oxygen from the open air (or from an oxygen supplier external to the battery) is the primary cathode active material. The air cathode needs an inert material to support the lithium oxide material formed at the cathode. The applicants have surprisingly found that an integrated structure of conductive nanofilaments can be used as an air cathode intended for supporting the discharge product (e.g., lithium oxide).

Hence, a further embodiment of the present invention is a lithium metal-air battery, wherein the air cathode comprises an integrated structure of electrically conductive nanometer-scaled filaments that are interconnected to form a porous network of electron-conducting paths comprising interconnected pores, wherein the filaments have a transverse dimension less than 500 nm (preferably less than 100 nm). These nanofilaments can be selected from carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers (CNFs), graphene sheets, carbon fibers, graphite fibers, etc.

The invention also provides a method of manufacturing a lithium battery, the method comprising: (a) providing a cathode active material layer and an optional cathode current collector to support the cathode active material layer; (b) providing an anode active material layer (containing a lithium metal or lithium alloy foil or coating) and an optional anode current collector to support the lithium metal or lithium alloy foil or coating; (c) providing an electrolyte in contact with the anode active material layer and the cathode active material layer and an optional separator electrically separating the anode and the cathode; and (d) providing an anode-protecting layer of a high-elasticity polymer having a recoverable tensile elastic strain from 2% to 1,500% (preferably from 5% to 1,000%), a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10⁻⁶ S/cm at room temperature, and a thickness from 0.5 nm to 10 μm. This anode-protecting layer is disposed between the lithium metal or lithium alloy foil or coating and the porous separator.

Preferably, the high-elasticity polymer has a lithium ion conductivity from 1×10⁻⁵ S/cm to 5×10⁻² S/cm. In some embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer has a recoverable tensile strain from 10% to 300% (more preferably >30%, and further more preferably >50%).

In certain embodiments, the procedure of providing a high-elasticity polymer contains providing a mixture/blend/composite of a rotaxane polymer with an elastomer, an electronically conductive polymer (e.g. polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof), a lithium-ion conducting material, a reinforcement material (e.g. carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, and/or graphene), or a combination thereof.

In this mixture/blend/composite, the lithium ion-conducting material is dispersed in the high-elasticity polymer and is preferably selected from Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, Li₂C₂O₄, LiOH, LiX, ROCO₂Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO₂Li)₂, (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂, Li₂S, Li_(x)SO_(y), or a combination thereof, wherein X═F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1 and 1≤y≤4.

In some embodiments, the lithium ion-conducting material is dispersed in the high-elasticity polymer and is selected from lithium perchlorate, LiClO₄, lithium hexafluoro-phosphate, LiPF₆, lithium borofluoride, LiBF₄, lithium hexafluoroarsenide, LiAsF₆, lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate, LiCF₃SO₃, bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium, LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂, lithium bis(oxalato)borate, LiBOB, lithium oxalyldifluoroborate, LiBF₂C₂O₄, lithium oxalyldifluoroborate, LiBF₂C₂O₄, lithium nitrate, LiNO₃, Li-Fluoroalkyl-Phosphates, LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃, lithium bisperfluoro-ethysulfonylimide, LiBETI, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulphonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulphonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide, LiTFSI, an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 Schematic of a prior art lithium metal battery cell, containing an anode layer (a thin Li foil or Li coating deposited on a surface of a current collector, Cu foil), a porous separator, and a cathode active material layer, which is composed of particles of a cathode active material, a conductive additive (not shown) and a resin binder (not shown). A cathode current collector supporting the cathode active layer is also shown.

FIG. 2 Schematic of a presently invented lithium metal battery cell containing an anode layer (a thin Li foil or Li coating deposited on a surface of a current collector, Cu foil), a high-elasticity polymer-based anode-protecting layer, a porous separator, and a cathode active material layer, which is composed of particles of a cathode active material, a conductive additive (not shown) and a resin binder (not shown). A cathode current collector supporting the cathode active layer is also shown.

FIG. 3(A) Representative tensile stress-strain curves of some rotaxane network polymers.

FIG. 3(B) The specific intercalation capacity curves of four lithium cells: 2 cells each having a cathode containing V₂O₅ particles (one cell having a rotaxane polymer-based protective layer and the other not) and 2 cells each having a cathode containing graphene-embraced V₂O₅ particles (one cell having a rotaxane polymer-based protective layer and the other not).

FIG. 4(A) Representative tensile stress-strain curves of polyrotaxane network films.

FIG. 4(B) The specific capacity values of two lithium-LiCoO₂ cells (initially the cell being lithium-free) featuring (1) high-elasticity polyrotaxane network layer at the anode and (2) no polymer protection layer at the anode, respectively.

FIG. 5 The discharge capacity curves of two coin cells having a FeF₃-based of cathode active materials: (1) having a high-elasticity polyrotaxane network-protected anode; and (2) no anode-protecting layer.

FIG. 6 Specific capacities of two lithium-FePc (organic) cells, each having Li foil as an anode active material and FePc/RGO mixture particles as the cathode active material (one cell containing a polyrotaxane network-protected anode and the other no anode protection layer).

FIG. 7 The cathode specific capacity values of two Li—S battery having a cathode active material based on a S-impregnated activated MCMB particles: one cell having a polyrotaxane network-protected anode and the other having no anode protection layer.

FIG. 8 The cathode specific capacity values of two Li—S batteries having a S/graphene hybrid-based cathode active material and (1) a high-elasticity polyrotaxane network layer for anode protection and (2) no anode protection layer, respectively.

FIG. 9(A) : A schematic of polyrotaxane consisting of a-cyclodextrin (a-CD) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG).

FIG. 9(B): A schematic showing topologically interlocked by “figure-of-eight” cross-links.

FIG. 9(C) A schematic showing a reaction in which Oligocyclodextrin (OCD) as the oligomacrocycle was obtained by the controlled reaction of a-cyclodextrin (a-CD) with a polymer diisocyanate derived from polypropylene glycol and tolylene diisocyanate.

FIG. 9(D) A schematic showing the preparation of a terminal bulky end-tethering polyethylene glycol-type methacrylate (TBM), by the reaction of a hydroxyl-terminated PEG based macromonomer with 3,5-dimethylphenyl isocyanate.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

This invention is directed at a lithium secondary battery, which is preferably based on an organic electrolyte, a polymer gel electrolyte, an ionic liquid electrolyte, a quasi-solid electrolyte, or a solid-state electrolyte. The shape of a lithium secondary battery can be cylindrical, square, button-like, etc. The present invention is not limited to any battery shape or configuration or any type of electrolyte.

The invention provides a lithium secondary battery, comprising a cathode, an anode, and electrolyte or separator-electrolyte assembly disposed between the cathode and the anode, wherein the anode comprises: (a) a foil or coating of lithium or lithium alloy as an anode active material; and (b) a thin layer of a high-elasticity polymer having a recoverable tensile strain no less than 2%, a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10⁻⁶ S/cm at room temperature, and a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, wherein the high-elasticity polymer is disposed (interposed) between the lithium or lithium alloy foil/coating and the porous separator. The foil or coating of lithium or lithium alloy may be supported by a current collector (e.g. a Cu foil, a Ni foam, a porous layer of nanofilaments, such as graphene sheets, carbon nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, etc. forming a 3D interconnected network of electron-conducting pathways).

Preferably, this anode-protecting layer is different in composition than the electrolyte used in the lithium battery and maintains as a discrete layer (not to be dissolved in the electrolyte) that is disposed between the anode active material layer (e.g. Li foil or Li coating on a current collector) and the electrolyte (or electrolyte-separator layer).

We have discovered that this protective layer provides several unexpected benefits: (a) the formation of dendrite has been essentially eliminated; (b) uniform deposition of lithium back to the anode side is readily achieved; (c) the layer ensures smooth and uninterrupted transport of lithium ions from/to the lithium foil/coating and through the interface between the lithium foil/coating and the protective layer with minimal interfacial resistance; and (d) cycle stability can be significantly improved and cycle life increased.

In a conventional lithium metal cell, as illustrated in FIG. 1, the anode active material (lithium) is deposited in a thin film form or a thin foil form directly onto an anode current collector (e.g. a Cu foil). The battery is a lithium metal battery, lithium sulfur battery, lithium-air battery, lithium-selenium battery, etc. As previously discussed in the Background section, these lithium secondary batteries have the dendrite-induced internal shorting and “dead lithium” issues at the anode.

We have solved these challenging issues that have troubled battery designers and electrochemists alike for more than 30 years by developing and implementing a new anode-protecting layer disposed between the lithium foil/coating and the separator layer. This protective layer comprises a high-elasticity polymer having a recoverable (elastic) tensile strain no less than 2% (preferably no less than 5%) under uniaxial tension and a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10⁻⁶ S/cm at room temperature (preferably and more typically from 1×10⁻⁵ S/cm to 5×10⁻² S/cm). The high-elasticity polymer contains a polyrotaxane network having a rotaxane structure or a polyrotaxane structure at a crosslink point of said polyrotaxane network.

As schematically shown in FIG. 2, one embodiment of the present invention is a lithium metal battery cell containing an anode layer (a thin Li foil or Li coating deposited on a surface of a current collector, Cu foil), a high-elasticity polymer-based anode-protecting layer, a porous separator, and a cathode active material layer, which is composed of particles of a cathode active material, a conductive additive (not shown) and a resin binder (not shown). A cathode current collector (e.g. Al foil) supporting the cathode active layer is also shown in FIG. 2.

High-elasticity polymer refers to a polymer that exhibits an elastic deformation of at least 2% when measured under uniaxial tension. In the field of materials science and engineering, the “elastic deformation” is defined as a deformation of a material (when being mechanically stressed) that is essentially fully recoverable and the recovery is essentially instantaneous upon release of the load. The elastic deformation is preferably greater than 5%, more preferably greater than 10%, further more preferably greater than 30%, and still more preferably greater than 100%.

It may be noted that although FIG. 2 shows a lithium coating pre-existing at the anode when the lithium battery is made, this is but one embodiment of the instant invention. An alternative embodiment is a lithium battery that does not contain a lithium foil or lithium coating at the anode (only an anode current collector, such as a Cu foil or a graphene/CNT mat) when the battery is made. The needed lithium to be bounced back and forth between the anode and the cathode is initially stored in the cathode active material (e.g. lithium vanadium oxide Li_(x)V₂O₅, instead of vanadium oxide, V₂O₅; or lithium polysulfide, instead of sulfur). During the first charging procedure of the lithium battery (e.g. as part of the electrochemical formation process), lithium comes out of the cathode active material, migrates to the anode side, and deposits on the anode current collector. The presence of the presently invented high-elasticity polymer layer enables the uniform deposition of lithium ions on the anode current collector surface. Such an alternative battery configuration avoids the need to have a layer of lithium foil or coating being present during battery fabrication. Bare lithium metal is highly sensitive to air moisture and oxygen and, thus, is more challenging to handle in a real battery manufacturing environment. This strategy of pre-storing lithium in the lithiated (lithium-containing) cathode active materials, such as Li_(x)V₂O₅ and Li₂S_(x), makes all the materials safe to handle in a real manufacturing environment. Cathode active materials, such as Li_(x)V₂O₅ and Li₂S_(x), are typically not air-sensitive.

The presently invented lithium secondary batteries can contain a wide variety of cathode active materials. The cathode active material layer may contain a cathode active material selected from an inorganic material, an organic material, a polymeric material, or a combination thereof. The inorganic material may be selected from a metal oxide, metal phosphate, metal silicide, metal selenide, transition metal sulfide, or a combination thereof.

The inorganic material may be selected from a lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphate, lithium metal silicide, or a combination thereof.

In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from a metal fluoride or metal chloride including the group consisting of CoF₃, MnF₃, FeF₃, VF₃, VOF₃, TiF₃, BiF₃, NiF₂, FeF₂, CuF₂, CuF, SnF₂, AgF, CuCl₂, FeCl₃, MnCl₂, and combinations thereof. In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from a lithium transition metal silicate, denoted as Li₂MSiO₄ or Li₂Ma_(x)Mb_(y)SiO₄, wherein M and Ma are selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, or VO; Mb is selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, Ti, Al, B, Sn, or Bi; and x+y≤1.

In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, or a combination thereof. The inorganic material is selected from TiS₂, TaS₂, MoS₂, NbSe₃, MnO₂, CoO₂, an iron oxide, a vanadium oxide, or a combination thereof.

The cathode active material layer may contain a metal oxide containing vanadium oxide selected from the group consisting of VO₂, Li_(x)VO₂, V₂O₅, Li_(x)V₂O₅, V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₇, V₄O₉, Li_(x)V₄O₉, V₆O₁₃, Li_(x)V₆O₁₃, their doped versions, their derivatives, and combinations thereof, wherein 0.1<x<5.

The cathode active material layer may contain a metal oxide or metal phosphate, selected from a layered compound LiMO₂, spinel compound LiM₂O₄, olivine compound LiMPO₄, silicate compound Li₂MSiO₄, Tavorite compound LiMPO₄F, borate compound LiMBO₃, or a combination thereof, wherein M is a transition metal or a mixture of multiple transition metals.

In some embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from: (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, or (e) a combination thereof.

The cathode active material layer may contain an organic material or polymeric material selected from Poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (PAQS), a lithium oxocarbon, 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide), pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PYT), polymer-bound PYT, Quino(triazene), redox-active organic material, Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexamethoxytriphenylene (HMTP), poly(5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone) (PADAQ), phosphazene disulfide polymer ([(NPS₂)₃]n), lithiated 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetraol formaldehyde polymer, Hexaazatrinaphtylene (HATN), Hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT(CN)₆), 5-Benzylidene hydantoin, Isatine lithium salt, Pyromellitic diimide lithium salt, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone derivatives (THQLi₄), N,N′-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PHP), N,N′-diallyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (AP), N,N′-dipropyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PRP), a thioether polymer, a quinone compound, 1,4-benzoquinone, 5,7,12,14-pentacenetetrone (PT), 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADDAQ), 5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADAQ), calixquinone, Li₄C₆O₆, Li₂C₆O₆, Li₆C₆O₆, or a combination thereof.

The thioether polymer is selected from Poly[methanetetryl-tetra(thiomethylene)] (PMTTM), Poly(2,4-dithiopentanylene) (PDTP), a polymer containing Poly(ethene-1,1,2,2-tetrathiol) (PETT) as a main-chain thioether polymers, a side-chain thioether polymer having a main-chain consisting of conjugating aromatic moieties, and having a thioether side chain as a pendant, Poly(2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane) (PPDT), Poly(1,4-di(1,3-dithiolan-2-yl)benzene) (PDDTB), poly(tetrahydrobenzodithiophene) (PTHBDT), poly[1,2,4,5-tetrakis(propylthio)benzene] (PTKPTB, or poly[3,4(ethylenedithio)thiophene] (PEDTT).

In other embodiments, the cathode active material layer contains an organic material selected from a phthalocyanine compound, such as copper phthalocyanine, zinc phthalocyanine, tin phthalocyanine, iron phthalocyanine, lead phthalocyanine, nickel phthalocyanine, vanadyl phthalocyanine, fluorochromium phthalocyanine, magnesium phthalocyanine, manganous phthalocyanine, dilithium phthalocyanine, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride, cadmium phthalocyanine, chlorogallium phthalocyanine, cobalt phthalocyanine, silver phthalocyanine, a metal-free phthalocyanine, a chemical derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

The lithium secondary battery may be a lithium-sulfur battery, wherein the cathode comprises sulfur, a sulfur-containing molecule, a sulfur-containing compound, a metal sulfide, a sulfur-carbon polymer, a lithium polysulfide, a sulfur/carbon hybrid or composite, a sulfur/graphite hybrid or composite, a sulfur/graphene hybrid or composite, a sulfur-polymer compound, or a combination thereof

In the rechargeable lithium-sulfur cell, the metal sulfide may contain a material denoted by M_(x)S_(y), wherein x is an integer from 1 to 3 and y is an integer from 1 to 10, and M is a metal element selected from an alkali metal, an alkaline metal selected from Mg or Ca, a transition metal, a metal from groups 13 to 17 of the periodic table, or a combination thereof. The metal element M preferably is selected from Li, Na, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Ti, Ni, Co, Fe, or Al. In some preferred embodiments, the metal sulfide in the cathode layer contains Li₂S₁, Li₂S₂, Li₂S₃, Li₂S₄, Li₂S₅, Li₂S₆, Li₂S₇, Li₂S₈, Li₂S₉, Li₂S₁₀, or a combination thereof.

Preferably and typically, the high-elasticity polymer has a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10⁻⁵ S/cm, more preferably no less than 10⁻⁴ S/cm, further preferably no less than 10⁻³ S/cm, and most preferably no less than 10⁻² S/cm. In some embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer is a neat polymer having no additive or filler dispersed therein. In others, the high-elasticity polymer is a polymer matrix composite containing from 0.1% to 50% (preferably 1% to 35%) by weight of a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in a high-elasticity polymer matrix material. The high-elasticity polymer must have a high elasticity (elastic deformation strain value >2%). An elastic deformation is a deformation that is fully recoverable and the recovery process is essentially instantaneous (no significant time delay). The high-elasticity polymer can exhibit an elastic deformation from 5% up to 1,500% (15 times of its original length), more typically from 10% to 800%, and further more typically from 50% to 500%, and most typically and desirably from 70% to 300%. It may be noted that although a metal typically has a high ductility (i.e. can be extended to a large extent without breakage), the majority of the deformation is plastic deformation (non-recoverable) and only a small amount of elastic deformation (typically <1% and more typically <0.2%).

In some preferred embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer contains a polyrotaxane network having a rotaxane structure or a polyrotaxane structure at a crosslink point of said polyrotaxane network. These network or cross-linked polymers exhibit a unique combination of a high elasticity (high elastic deformation strain) and high lithium-ion conductivity.

The rotaxane structure or polyrotaxane structure may be selected from rotaxane, a chemically modified rotaxane (rotaxane derivative), a polymer-grafted rotaxane, polyrotaxane, a co-polymer of polyrotaxane, a graft polymer of polyrotaxane, a polymer blend of polymer of polyrotaxane, a chemically modified polyrotaxane, or a combination thereof. These network or cross-linked polymers exhibit a unique combination of a high elasticity (high elastic deformation strain) and high lithium-ion conductivity.

In certain embodiments, the polyrotaxane network contains a polymer selected from polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, polyethylene oxide, polypropylene oxide, poly (succinic acid), an aliphatic polyester, or a combination thereof. These network or cross-linked polymers exhibit a unique combination of a high elasticity (high elastic deformation strain) and high lithium-ion conductivity.

A polyrotaxane network is a network polymer having a rotaxane or polyrotaxane structure at the crosslink points. A polyrotaxane typically contains many cyclic molecules that are threaded on a single polymer Chain, which is trapped by capping the chain with bulky end groups. One example is a polyrotaxane consisting of α-cyclodextrin (α-CD) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), wherein a PEG chain penetrates multiple α-CD rings, illustrated in FIG. 9(A) as an example.

It is also possible to have multiple α-CD rings being cross-linked together (e.g. by cyanuric chloride) to form a 3D network of chains. In this network, the polymer chains with bulky end groups (e.g. bisamine) are neither covalently cross-linked nor do they form conventional physical entanglements. Instead, they are topologically interlocked by “figure-of-eight” cross-links, as illustrated in Fig. 9(B). These cross-links can pass along the polymer chains freely to relax out the stress exerted on the threaded polymer chains just like pulleys. This topological network by figure-of-eight cross-links is herein referred to as a polyrotaxane (PR) network.

Furthermore, the α-CDs in the PR may be modified with polymerizable molecules (e.g. vinyl molecules), so that the PR derivative becomes a cross-linker for preparing complex 3D polymer networks, such as polymer gels. Molecules of α-CDs may also be modified with other multi-functionality molecules, such as —COOH and —OOCHN—R (R=methyl or other alkyl groups). The cyclodextrin (CD) may be a permethylated CD. The α-CDs in the PR may also be grafted with a polymer. For instance, poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) (PNIPA) may be grafted from α-cyclodextrin of PR, via controlled radical polymerization. The terminal chlorinated alkyl group of the grafted PNIPA may then be modified with azide or alkyne. As a result, one obtains several types of PNIPA-grafted PR molecules with different terminations of PNIPA as building blocks to prepare 3D crosslinked network polymers having a high elasticity.

A simple and effective protocol has been developed to directly introduce rotaxane cross-links into vinyl polymers with a cross-linker, through the radical polymerization of the corresponding vinyl monomers [T. Arai, et al. “Versatile supramolecular cross-linker: a rotaxane cross-linker that directly endows vinyl polymers with movable cross-links,” Chemistry 19, 5917-5923 (2013)]. This protocol for a rotaxane-crosslinked polymer (RCP) is achieved by transforming the cross-link structure of the cross-linker without requiring the pre-synthesis or cross-linking of polyrotaxane. The crosslinker is a CD-based vinylic supramolecular cross-linker (VSC) capable of facilitating the synthesis of polyrotaxane networks through radical polymerization of a vinyl monomer.

To prepare the VSC, an oligomacrocycle and a macromonomer with a bulky end-group are mixed to form a cross-linked inclusion complex through pseudo-rotaxanation. Successive radical polymerization of the vinyl monomer in the presence of VSC yields RCP possessing movable cross-links or movable polymer chains at the cross-link points. In this system, the pseudo-polyrotaxane network structure of the VSC is fixed into the polymer through copolymerization with the vinyl monomer.

Further, we have unexpectedly discovered that the presence of an amount of a lithium salt or sodium salt (1-35% by weight) and a liquid solvent (0-50%) can significantly increase the lithium-ion or sodium ion conductivity.

Typically, a high-elasticity polymer is originally in a monomer or oligomer states that can be cured to form a cross-linked polymer that is highly elastic. Prior to curing, these polymers or oligomers are soluble in an organic solvent to form a polymer solution. An ion-conducting or electron-conducting additive may be added to this solution to form a suspension. This solution or suspension can then be formed into a thin layer of polymer precursor on a surface of an anode current collector. The polymer precursor (monomer or oligomer and initiator) is then polymerized and cured to form a lightly cross-linked polymer. This thin layer of polymer may be tentatively deposited on a solid substrate (e.g. surface of a polymer or glass), dried, and separated from the substrate to become a free-standing polymer layer. This free-standing layer is then laid on a lithium foil/coating or implemented between a lithium film/coating and electrolyte or separator. Polymer layer formation can be accomplished by using one of several procedures well-known in the art; e.g. spraying, spray-painting, printing, coating, extrusion-based film-forming, casting, etc.

It is preferred that these materials form a lightly cross-linked network of polymer chains. In other words, the network polymer or cross-linked polymer should have a relatively low degree of cross-linking or low cross-link density to impart a high elastic deformation. The cross-link density of a cross-linked network of polymer chains may be defined as the inverse of the molecular weight between cross-links (Mc). The cross-link density can be determined by the equation, Mc=ρRT/Ge, where Ge is the equilibrium modulus as determined by a temperature sweep in dynamic mechanical analysis, ρ is the physical density, R is the universal gas constant in J/mol*K and T is absolute temperature in K. Once Ge and ρ are determined experimentally, then Mc and the cross-link density can be calculated.

The magnitude of Mc may be normalized by dividing the Mc value by the molecular weight of the characteristic repeat unit in the cross-link chain or chain linkage to obtain a number, Nc, which is the number of repeating units between two cross-link points. We have found that the elastic deformation strain correlates very well with Mc and Nc. The elasticity of a cross-linked polymer derives from a large number of repeating units (large Nc) between cross-links. The repeating units can assume a more relax conformation (e.g. random coil) when the polymer is not stressed. However, when the polymer is mechanically stressed, the linkage chain uncoils or gets stretched to provide a large deformation. A long chain linkage between cross-link points (larger Nc) enables a larger elastic deformation. Upon release of the load, the linkage chain returns to the more relaxed or coiled state. During mechanical loading of a polymer, the cross-links prevent slippage of chains that otherwise form plastic deformation (non-recoverable).

Preferably, the Nc value in a high-elasticity polymer is greater than 5, more preferably greater than 10, further more preferably greater than 100, and even more preferably greater than 200. These Nc values can be readily controlled and varied to achieve different elastic deformation values by using different cross-linking agents with different functionalities, and by designing the polymerization and cross-linking reactions to proceed at different temperatures for different periods of time.

Alternatively, Mooney-Rilvin method may be used to determine the degree of cross-linking. Crosslinking also can be measured by swelling experiments. In a swelling experiment, the crosslinked sample is placed into a good solvent for the corresponding linear polymer at a specific temperature, and either the change in mass or the change in volume is measured. The higher the degree of crosslinking, the less swelling is attainable. Based on the degree of swelling, the Flory Interaction Parameter (which relates the solvent interaction with the sample, Flory Huggins Eq.), and the density of the solvent, the theoretical degree of crosslinking can be calculated according to Flory's Network Theory. The Flory-Rehner Equation can be useful in the determination of cross-linking.

The aforementioned high-elasticity polymers may be used alone to protect the lithium foil/coating layer at the anode. Alternatively, the high-elasticity polymer can be mixed with a broad array of elastomers, electrically conducting polymers, lithium ion-conducting materials, and/or strengthening materials (e.g. carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, or graphene sheets).

A broad array of elastomers can be mixed with a high-elasticity polymer to form a blend, co-polymer, or interpenetrating network that encapsulates the cathode active material particles. The elastomeric material may be selected from natural polyisoprene (e.g. cis-1,4-polyisoprene natural rubber (NR) and trans-1,4-polyisoprene gutta-percha), synthetic polyisoprene (IR for isoprene rubber), polybutadiene (BR for butadiene rubber), chloroprene rubber (CR), polychloroprene (e.g. Neoprene, Baypren etc.), butyl rubber (copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene, IIR), including halogenated butyl rubbers (chloro butyl rubber (CIIR) and bromo butyl rubber (BIIR), styrene-butadiene rubber (copolymer of styrene and butadiene, SBR), nitrile rubber (copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile, NBR), EPM (ethylene propylene rubber, a copolymer of ethylene and propylene), EPDM rubber (ethylene propylene diene rubber, a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene and a diene-component), epichlorohydrin rubber (ECO), polyacrylic rubber (ACM, ABR), silicone rubber (SI, Q, VMQ), fluorosilicone rubber (FVMQ), fluoroelastomers (FKM, and FEPM; such as Viton, Tecnoflon, Fluorel, Aflas and Dai-El), perfluoroelastomers (FFKM: Tecnoflon PFR, Kalrez, Chemraz, Perlast), polyether block amides (PEBA), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSM; e.g. Hypalon), and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, a high-elasticity polymer can form a polymer matrix composite containing a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in the high-elasticity polymer matrix material, wherein the lithium ion-conducting additive is selected from Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, Li₂C₂O₄, LiOH, LiX, ROCO₂Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO₂Li)₂, (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂, Li₂S, Li_(x)SO_(y), or a combination thereof, wherein X═F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1 and 1≤y≤4.

In some embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer can be mixed with a lithium ion-conducting additive, which contains a lithium salt selected from lithium perchlorate, LiClO₄, lithium hexafluorophosphate, LiPF₆, lithium borofluoride, LiBF₄, lithium hexafluoroarsenide, LiAsF₆, lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate, LiCF₃SO₃, bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium, LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂, lithium bis(oxalato)borate, LiBOB, lithium oxalyldifluoroborate, LiBF₂C₂O₄, lithium oxalyldifluoroborate, LiBF₂C₂O₄, lithium nitrate, LiNO₃, Li-Fluoroalkyl-Phosphates, LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃, lithium bisperfluoro-ethysulfonylimide, LiBETI, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulphonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulphonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide, LiTFSI, an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.

The high-elasticity polymer may form a mixture, blend, or interpenetrating network with an electron-conducting polymer selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, derivatives thereof (e.g. sulfonated versions), or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the high-elasticity polymer may form a mixture, co-polymer, or semi-interpenetrating network with a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), Polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), Poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazenex, Polyvinyl chloride, Polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a derivative thereof (e.g. sulfonated versions), or a combination thereof.

Unsaturated rubbers that can be mixed with the high-elasticity polymer include natural polyisoprene (e.g. cis-1,4-polyisoprene natural rubber (NR) and trans-1,4-polyisoprene gutta-percha), synthetic polyisoprene (IR for isoprene rubber), polybutadiene (BR for butadiene rubber), chloroprene rubber (CR), polychloroprene (e.g. Neoprene, Baypren etc.), butyl rubber (copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene, IIR), including halogenated butyl rubbers (chloro butyl rubber (CIIR) and bromo butyl rubber (BIIR), styrene-butadiene rubber (copolymer of styrene and butadiene, SBR), nitrile rubber (copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile, NBR),

Some elastomers are saturated rubbers that cannot be cured by sulfur vulcanization; they are made into a rubbery or elastomeric material via different means: e.g. by having a copolymer domain that holds other linear chains together. Each of these elastomers can be used to bond particles of a cathode active material by one of several means; e.g. spray coating, dilute solution mixing (dissolving the cathode active material particles in an uncured polymer, monomer, or oligomer, with or without an organic solvent) followed by drying and curing.

Saturated rubbers and related elastomers in this category include EPM (ethylene propylene rubber, a copolymer of ethylene and propylene), EPDM rubber (ethylene propylene diene rubber, a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene and a diene-component), epichlorohydrin rubber (ECO), polyacrylic rubber (ACM, ABR), silicone rubber (SI, Q, VMQ), fluorosilicone rubber (FVMQ), fluoroelastomers (FKM, and FEPM; such as Viton, Tecnoflon, Fluorel, Aflas and Dai-El), perfluoroelastomers (FFKM: Tecnoflon PFR, Kalrez, Chemraz, Perlast), polyether block amides (PEBA), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSM; e.g. Hypalon), and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), protein resilin, and protein elastin. Polyurethane and its copolymers (e.g. urea-urethane copolymer) are particularly useful elastomeric shell materials for encapsulating anode active material particles.

Example 1: Lithium Battery Containing a High-Elasticity Polymer-Protected Lithium Anode and a Cathode Containing V₂O₅ Particles

Cathode active material layers were prepared from V₂O₅ particles and graphene-embraced V₂O₅ particles, respectively. The V₂O₅ particles were commercially available. Graphene-embraced V₂O₅ particles were prepared in-house. In a typical experiment, vanadium pentoxide gels were obtained by mixing V₂O₅ in a LiCl aqueous solution. The Lit exchanged gels obtained by interaction with LiCl solution (the Li:V molar ratio was kept as 1:1) was mixed with a GO suspension and then placed in a Teflon-lined stainless steel 35 ml autoclave, sealed, and heated up to 180° C. for 12 h. After such a hydrothermal treatment, the green solids were collected, thoroughly washed, ultrasonicated for 2 minutes, and dried at 70° C. for 12 h followed by mixing with another 0.1% GO in water, ultrasonicating to break down nano-belt sizes, and then spray-drying at 200° C. to obtain graphene-embraced V₂O₅ composite particulates. Selected amounts of V₂O₅ particles and graphene-embraced V₂O₅ particles, respectively, were then each made into a cathode layer following a well-known slurry coating process.

Preparation of polyrotaxane film for anode protection was conducted in the following manner: In an example, polyethylene glycol-bisamine (PEG-BA, 0.9 g) and α-CD (3.6 g) were dissolved in water (30 mL) at 80° C. and kept at 5° C. overnight to yield the white paste of the inclusion complex. Then, the paste was dried and added with an excess of 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (2.4 mL) together with dimethylformamide (10 mL) and then the mixture was stirred in a nitrogen atmosphere at room temperature overnight. The reaction mixture was dissolved in DMSO (50 mL) and precipitated from a 0.1% sodium chloride aqueous solution (800 mL) twice to give a yellow product. The product was collected, washed with water and methanol (three times, respectively), and dried to produce the polyrotaxane (1.25 g).

The polyrotaxane (100 mg) was dissolved in 1 N NaOH (0.5 mL) at 5° C. The hydroxyl groups of α-CD were ionized under a strong base, which resulted in Coulombic repulsion between adjacent CDs in the polyrotaxane. Cyanuric chloride (35 mg), dissolved in 1 N NaOH (0.5 mL), was mixed with the solution to initiate the cross-linking reaction in the resulting solution. The solution was then quickly cast onto a glass substrate to produce a polymer film. The cross-linking reaction continued. After 3 h at room temperature, a film of yellow polyrotaxane gel was obtained. This film was peeled off from the glass and cut into pieces with desired dimensions for use as an anode-protecting layer.

Some of the polymer film samples were subjected to dynamic mechanical testing to obtain the equilibrium dynamic modulus, Ge, for the determination of the number average molecular weight between two cross-link points (Mc) and the corresponding number of repeat units (Nc), as a means of characterizing the degree of cross-linking.

Several tensile testing specimens were cut from each cross-link film and tested with a universal testing machine. The representative tensile stress-strain curves of two polymers are shown in FIG. 3(A), which indicate that this series of network polymers have an elastic deformation from approximately 460% (dry network) to 1,490% (swollen with an organic solvent, EC). These above are for neat polymers without any additive. The addition of up to 30% by weight of a lithium salt typically reduces this elasticity down to a reversible tensile strain from 10% to 100%.

For electrochemical testing, the working electrodes (cathode layers) were prepared by mixing 85 wt. % V₂O₅ or 88% of graphene-embraced V₂O₅ particles, 5-8 wt. % CNTs, and 7 wt. % polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder dissolved in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinoe (NMP) to form a slurry of 5 wt. % total solid content. After coating the slurries on Al foil, the electrodes were dried at 120° C. in vacuum for 2 h to remove the solvent before pressing. Then, the electrodes were cut into a disk (ϕ=12 mm) and dried at 100° C. for 24 h in vacuum.

Electrochemical measurements were carried out using CR2032 (3V) coin-type cells with lithium metal as the counter/reference electrode, Celgard 2400 membrane as separator, and 1 M LiPF₆ electrolyte solution dissolved in a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC) (EC-DEC, 1:1 v/v). The cell assembly was performed in an argon-filled glove-box. The CV measurements were carried out using a CH-6 electrochemical workstation at a scanning rate of 1 mV/s. The electrochemical performance of the cell featuring high-elasticity polymer binder and that containing PVDF binder were evaluated by galvanostatic charge/discharge cycling at a current density of 50 mA/g using an Arbin electrochemical workstation.

Summarized in FIG. 3(B) are the specific intercalation capacity curves of four lithium cells: 2 cells each having a cathode containing V₂O₅ particles (one cell having a polyrotaxane network polymer-based lithium metal anode-protecting layer and the other not) and 2 cells each having a cathode containing graphene-embraced V₂O₅ particles (one cell having a polyrotaxane network polymer-based lithium anode-protecting layer and the other not). As the number of cycles increases, the specific capacity of the un-protected cells drops at the fastest rate. In contrast, the presently invented polyrotaxane polymer protection layer provides the battery cell with a significantly more stable and high specific capacity for a large number of cycles. These data have clearly demonstrated the surprising and superior performance of the presently invented polyrotaxane network polymer protection approach.

The high-elasticity polymer protective layer appears to be capable of reversibly deforming to a great extent without breakage when the lithium foil decreases in thickness during battery discharge. The protective polymer layer also prevents the continued reaction between liquid electrolyte and lithium metal at the anode, reducing the problem of continuing loss in lithium and electrolyte. This also enables a significantly more uniform deposition of lithium ions upon returning from the cathode during a battery re-charge; hence, no lithium dendrite. These were observed by using SEM to examine the surfaces of the electrodes recovered from the battery cells after some numbers of charge-discharge cycles.

Example 2: High-Elasticity Polymer Implemented in the Anode of a Lithium-LiCoO₂ Cell (Initially the Cell Anode has an Ultra-Thin Lithium Layer, <1 μm Thick)

The high-elasticity polymer as a lithium-protecting layer was based on another Rotaxane-based network polymer obtained by following a procedure similar to that suggested by Arai, et a. [T. Arai, et al. “Versatile supramolecular cross-linker: a rotaxane cross-linker that directly endows vinyl polymers with movable cross-links,” Chemistry 19, 5917-5923 (2013)]. First, CD-based vinylic supramolecular cross-linker (VSC) was prepared by following the procedure described below: An oligomacrocycle and a macromonomer, two constituents of VSCs, were prepared from commercially available starting materials. Oligocyclodextrin (OCD) as the oligomacrocycle was obtained by the controlled reaction of α-cyclodextrin (α-CD) with a polymer diisocyanate derived from polypropylene glycol and tolylene diisocyanate (FIG. 9 (C)).

The average number of α-CD per OCD molecule was 4, as calculated from the results of the size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) profile of acetylated OCD (Mw 8000, polydispersity index (PDI) 1.6), which was prepared by using acetic anhydride in pyridine. The macromonomer, a terminal bulky end-tethering polyethylene glycol-type methacrylate (TBM), was prepared by the reaction of a hydroxyl-terminated PEG based macromonomer with 3,5-dimethylphenyl isocyanate (FIG. 9 (D)).

OCD and TBM were mixed in alkaline water (0.1M NaOH), and the mixture was sonicated for 5 min at room temperature to produce a white viscous gel (VSC).

A mixture of N,N-dimethyl-acrylamide (DMAAm, 2.0 g) as a typical vinyl monomer, VSC (0.30 g, 15 wt %), and the photoinitiator (Irgacure-500, 1 wt %) in water were cast onto glass surface and UV irradiated at room temperature for 3 min to produce a gelled polymer film (84%, RCP-DMAAm). Water was then removed and the film was cut into several pieces. Some of the film pieces were impregnated with some organic solvent (e.g. EC). A separate polymer composite film (having lithium salt dispersed in the network polymer) was also cast.

Tensile testing was also conducted on the polymer network films (without hybrid cathode particles) and some testing results are summarized in FIG. 4(A). This series of cross-linked polymers can be elastically stretched up to approximately 355% (having some lithium salt dispersed therein) or up to 950% (with no additive).

FIG. 4(B) shows that the cell having an anode-protecting polymer layer offers a significantly more stable cycling behavior. The high-elasticity polymer also acts to isolate the electrolyte from the lithium coating yet still allowing for easy diffusion of lithium ions.

Example 3: Li Metal Cells Containing Metal Fluoride Nanoparticle-Based Cathode and a High-Elasticity Polymer-Protected Lithium Anode

This polyrotaxane (PR) consists of α-cyclodextrin (α-CD), polyethylene glycol (PEG) with terminal carboxylic acids and a capping agent (1-adamantanamine). In the slide-ring gel, α-CDs in one PR are cross-linked to α-CDs in different PRs. The PEG main chains are not fixed at the cross-linking points in the polymer network; instead, they can pass through the hole of a figure-8-shaped junction of cross-linked α-CDs freely, which is called the ‘pulley effect’. The stress exerted on part of the polymer network is minimized through this effect. As a result, the polymer network exhibits high extensibility and a small hysteresis on repeated extension and contraction.

Polymer networks using PR as a cross-linker and N-Isopropylacrylamide (NIPA) as the monomer were prepared. In addition, ionic sites were introduced into the PR-cross-linked polymer network to obtain extremely high-elasticity polymer gel. The ionic groups help the PR cross-linkers to become well extended in the polymer network. The resulting polymer gels are highly elastic, similar to soft rubbers, because the cross-linked α-CD molecules can move along the PEG chains. A NIPA-based network polymer was herein prepared using a PR modified by 2-acryloyloxyethyl isocyanate, which contains both isocyanate and vinyl groups, as the cross-linker (PR—C). The isocyanate groups form stable carbamate bonds with the α-CD hydroxyl groups in the PR to generate the cross-linking structures.

In an example, hydroxypropylated polyrotaxane HPR (500 mg), a DBTDL catalyst (1 drop) and BHT (polymerization inhibitor, 0.78 mg) were dissolved in 30 ml of anhydrous DMSO. Then, 2-Acryloyloxyethyl isocyanate (78 mg) was dissolved in 10 ml of anhydrous DMSO and the solution was added dropwise to the mixtures with vigorous stirring in the absence of light. The mixtures were then continuously stirred overnight at 40° C. to ensure that the reactions were complete. HPR—C was re-precipitated from the reaction mixture using an excess of methanol or acetone, respectively, and the precipitated product was refrigerated. The products were washed several times with methanol and acetone and then dried. The total number of vinyl groups per HPR was estimated from 1H-NMR spectra to be approximately 200.

The polymer networks were prepared by conventional free-radical polymerization of the monomers with the PR cross-linkers. Appropriate amounts of NIPA, AAcNa, HPR—C, and APS (initiator) were dissolved in water. The final concentrations of the ionic monomer and NIPA were 0.1 and 1.9 M, respectively, whereas the crosslinker concentration was varied. In all the pre-gel solutions, the total concentration of the monomers, excluding the cross-linkers, was fixed at 2M. Subsequently, N₂ gas was bubbled through the pre-gel solutions for 30 min, which were then sonicated to remove excess nitrogen from the solution. To initiate the polymerization below room temperature, a few drops of TEMED were added to the pre-gel solution and the reacting mass was quickly cast onto a glass surface to form several films. The films were polymerized and cured at 4° C. for 24 h to obtain cross-linked polymer films having different degrees of cross-linking. Pieces of these films were used to cover (protect) the lithium anode layer of the resulting lithium batteries.

In addition, tensile testing was conducted on some cut pieces of these films. This series of cross-linked polymers can be elastically stretched up to approximately 800% (without any additive). The addition of additives results in an elasticity of approximately 5% (20% carbon black) to 180% (5% graphene sheets, as a conductive additive).

Commercially available powders of CoF₃, MnF₃, FeF₃, VF₃, VOF₃, TiF₃, and BiF₃ were subjected to high-intensity ball-milling to reduce the particle size down to approximately 0.5-2.3 μm. Each type of these metal fluoride particles, along with graphene sheets (as a conductive additive), was then added into an NMP and PVDF binder suspension to form a multiple-component slurry. The slurry was then slurry-coated on Al foil to form cathode layers.

Shown in FIG. 5 are the discharge capacity curves of two coin cells having the same cathode active material (FeF₃), but one cell having a high-elasticity polymer-protected anode and the other having no protective layer. These results have clearly demonstrated that the high-elasticity polymer protection strategy provides excellent protection against capacity decay of a lithium metal battery.

The high-elasticity polymer appears to be capable of reversibly deforming without breakage when the anode layer expands and shrinks during charge and discharge. The polymer also prevents continued reaction between the liquid electrolyte and the lithium metal. No dendrite-like features were found with the anode being protected by a high-elasticity polymer. This was confirmed by using SEM to examine the surfaces of the electrodes recovered from the battery cells after some numbers of charge-discharge cycles.

Example 4: Li-Organic Cell Containing a Naphthalocyanine/Reduced Graphene Oxide (FePc/RGO) Particulate Cathode and a High Elasticity Polymer-Protected Li Foil Anode

Particles of combined FePc/graphene sheets were obtained by ball-milling a mixture of FePc and RGO in a milling chamber for 30 minutes. The resulting FePc/RGO mixture particles were potato-like in shape. Some of these mixture particles were encapsulated by a rotaxane network polymer (as described in Example 1) using the pan-coating procedure. Two lithium cells were prepared, each containing a Li foil anode, a porous separator, and a cathode layer of FePc/RGO particles (encapsulated or un-encapsulated).

The cycling behaviors of these 2 lithium cells are shown in FIG. 6, which indicates that the lithium-organic cell having a high-elasticity polymer protection layer in the anode exhibits a significantly more stable cycling response. This protective polymer reduces or eliminates the continuing contact between the lithium metal and the electrolyte, yet the polymer layer itself remains in ionic contact with the lithium metal and is permeable to lithium ions. This approach has significantly increased the cycle life of all lithium-organic batteries.

Example 5: Li—S Cells Containing an Anode-Protecting Layer and a Cathode Containing Sulfur-Impregnated Activated Carbon Particles

One way to combine sulfur with a conducting material (e.g. carbon/graphite particles) is to use a solution or melt mixing process. Highly porous activated carbon particles, chemically etched mesocarbon micro-beads (activated MCMBs), and exfoliated graphite worms were mixed with sulfur melt at 117-120° C. (slightly above the melting point of S, 115.2° C.) for 10-60 minutes to obtain sulfur-impregnated carbon particles.

FIG. 7 shows the cathode specific capacity values of two Li—S batteries having a cathode active material based on a S-impregnated activated MCMB: one cell having a polyrotaxane-protected anode and the other one having no anode protection layer. It is clear that the rotaxane-based network polymer layer (same as prepared in Example 2) implemented at the anode is highly beneficial to the cycle stability of the Li—S battery.

Example 6: Li—S Cells Containing an Anode-Protecting Layer and a Cathode Containing Sulfur-Coated Graphene Sheets

The cathode preparation procedure involves producing vapor of elemental sulfur, allowing deposition of S vapor on surfaces of single-layer or few-layer graphene sheets. As a first step, the graphene sheets, suspended in a liquid medium (e.g. graphene oxide in water or graphene in NMP), were sprayed onto a substrate (e.g. glass surface) to form a thin layer of graphene sheets. This thin layer of graphene was then exposed to sublimation-generated physical vapor deposition. Sublimation of solid sulfur occurs at a temperature greater than 40° C., but a significant and practically useful sublimation rate typically does not occur until the temperature is above 100° C. We typically used 117-160° C. with a vapor deposition time of 10-120 minutes to deposit a thin film of sulfur on graphene surface (sulfur thickness being approximately from 1 nm to 10 nm). This thin layer of graphene having a thin film of sulfur deposited thereon was then easily broken into pieces of S-coated graphene sheets using an air jet mill. These S-coated graphene sheets were made into secondary particles of approximately 5-15 μm in diameter (e.g. via spray-drying) and then encapsulated by an UHMW PAN polymer. These encapsulated particulates were made into cathode electrodes using the conventional slurry coating procedure.

The cathode specific capacity values of two Li—S batteries having a S/graphene hybrid-based cathode active material and a lithium foil anode with or without a high-elasticity polymer protection layer (same as in Example 3) are summarized in FIG. 8. These data have further demonstrated the effectiveness of the high-elasticity polymer layer protection approach.

Example 7: Effect of Lithium Ion-Conducting Additive in a High-Elasticity Polymer

A wide variety of lithium ion-conducting additives were added to several different polymer matrix materials to prepare anode protection layers. The lithium ion conductivity vales of the resulting polymer/salt complex materials are summarized in Table 1 below. We have discovered that these polymer composite materials are suitable anode-protecting layer materials provided that their lithium ion conductivity at room temperature is no less than 10⁻⁶ S/cm. With these materials, lithium ions appear to be capable of readily diffusing through the protective layer having a thickness no greater than 1 μm. For thicker polymer films (e.g. 10 μm), a lithium ion conductivity at room temperature of these high-elasticity polymers no less than 10⁻⁴ S/cm would be required.

TABLE 1 Lithium ion conductivity of various high-elasticity polymer composite compositions as a lithium metal-protecting layer. Sample Lithium-conducting % Rotaxane polymer No. additive network (1-2 μm thick) Li-ion conductivity (S/cm) E-1p Li₂CO₃ + (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂ 70-99% 1.5 × 10⁻⁴ to 3.6 × 10⁻³ S/cm B1p LiF + LiOH + Li₂C₂O₄ 60-90% 4.5 × 10⁻⁵ to 2.8 × 10⁻³ S/cm B2p LiF + HCOLi 80-99% 1.1 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.3 × 10⁻³ S/cm B3p LiOH 70-99% 8.9 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.2 × 10⁻² S/cm B4p Li₂CO₃ 70-99% 4.1 × 10⁻³ to 9.2 × 10⁻³ S/cm B5p Li₂C₂O₄ 70-99% 8.4 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.4 × 10⁻² S/cm B6p Li₂CO₃ + LiOH 70-99% 1.4 × 10⁻³ to 1.6 × 10⁻² S/cm C1p LiClO₄ 70-99% 4.1 × 10⁻⁴ to 2.1 × 10⁻³ S/cm C2p LiPF₆ 70-99% 2.2 × 10⁻⁴ to 6.1 × 10⁻³ S/cm C3p LiBF₄ 70-99% 1.3 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.6 × 10⁻³ S/cm C4p LiBOB + LiNO₃ 70-99% 1.3 × 10⁻⁴ to 2.3 × 10⁻³ S/cm S1p Sulfonated polyaniline 85-99% 3.2 × 10⁻³ to 9.5 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm S2p Sulfonated SBR 85-99% 1.1 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.2 × 10⁻³ S/cm S3p Sulfonated PVDF 80-99% 1.6 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.2 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm S4p Polyethylene oxide 80-99% 4.1 × 10⁻⁴ to 3.2 × 103⁴ S/cm

Example 8: Cycle Stability of Various Rechargeable Lithium Battery Cells

In lithium-ion battery industry, it is a common practice to define the cycle life of a battery as the number of charge-discharge cycles that the battery suffers a 20% decay in capacity based on the initial capacity measured after the required electrochemical formation. Summarized in Table 2 below are the cycle life data of a broad array of batteries featuring an anode with or without an anode-protecting polymer layer.

TABLE 2 Cycle life data of various lithium secondary (rechargeable) batteries. Anode-protecting Initial capacity Cycle life Sample ID polymer Type & % of cathode active material (mAh/g) (No. of cycles) CuCl₂-1e polyrotaxane 85% by wt. CuCl₂ particles (80 nm) + 536 1485 7% graphite + 8% binder CuCl₂-2e none 85% by wt. CuCl₂ particles (80 nm) + 536 115 7% graphite + 8% binder BiF₃-1e none 85% by wt. BiFe₃ particles + 7% 275 115 graphene + 8% binder BiF₃-2e Polyrotaxane + 85% by wt. BiFe₃ particles + 7% 276 1,340 50% ethylene oxide graphene + 8% binder Li₂MnSiO₄-1e polyrotaxane 85% C-coated Li₂MnSiO₄ + 7% 255 2,450 CNT + 8% binder Li₂MnSiO₄-2e none 85% C-coated Li₂MnSiO₄ + 7% 252 543 CNT + 8% binder Li₆C₆O₆-1e polyrotaxane + Li₆C₆O₆-graphene ball-milled 441 1,450 20% polyanniline Li₆C₆O₆-2e none Li₆C₆O₆-graphene ball-milled 438 116 MoS₂-1e polyrotaxane 85% MoS₂ + 8% graphite + binder 226 1,721 MoS₂-2e none 85% MoS₂ + 8% graphite + binder 225 156

In conclusion, the high-elasticity polymer-based anode-protecting layer strategy is surprisingly effective in alleviating the problems of lithium metal dendrite formation and lithium metal-electrolyte reactions that otherwise lead to rapid capacity decay and potentially internal shorting and explosion of the lithium secondary batteries. The high-elasticity polymer is capable of expanding or shrinking congruently or conformably with the anode layer. This capability helps to maintain a good contact between the current collector (or the lithium film itself) and the protective layer, enabling uniform re-deposition of lithium ions without interruption. 

We claim:
 1. A lithium secondary battery comprising a cathode, an anode, and a porous separator or electrolyte disposed between said cathode and said anode, wherein said anode comprises: a) an anode active layer containing a layer of lithium or lithium alloy, in a form of a foil, coating, or multiple particles aggregated together, as an anode active material; and b) a thin layer of a high-elasticity polymer, disposed between the anode active layer and said porous separator or electrolyte; said polymer having a recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 1,500%, a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10⁻⁶ S/cm at room temperature, and a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, wherein said high-elasticity polymer contains a polyrotaxane network having a rotaxane structure or a polyrotaxane structure at a crosslink point of said polyrotaxane network.
 2. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said rotaxane structure or polyrotaxane structure is selected from rotaxane, a chemically modified rotaxane (rotaxane derivative), a polymer-grafted rotaxane, polyrotaxane, a co-polymer of polyrotaxane, a graft polymer of polyrotaxane, a polymer blend of polymer of polyrotaxane, a chemically modified polyrotaxane, or a combination thereof.
 3. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said polyrotaxane network contains a polymer selected from polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, polyethylene oxide, polypropylene oxide, poly (succinic acid), an aliphatic polyester, or a combination thereof.
 4. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said polyrotaxane network contains a liquid that permeates into spaces inside said network.
 5. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer contains from 0.1% to 50% by weight of a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed therein, or contains therein from 0.1% by weight to 10% by weight of a reinforcement nanofilament selected from carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, graphene, or a combination thereof.
 6. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer is mixed with a lithium ion-conducting additive to form a composite wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive is dispersed in said high-elasticity polymer and is selected from Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, Li₂C₂O₄, LiOH, LiX, ROCO₂Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO₂Li)₂, (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂, Li₂S, Li_(x)SO_(y), or a combination thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1 and 1≤y≤4.
 7. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer further contains an electrically conducting material dispersed therein and said electrically conducting material is selected from an electron-conducting polymer, a metal particle or wire, a graphene sheet, a carbon fiber, a graphite fiber, a carbon nanofiber, a graphite nanofiber, a carbon nanotube, a graphite particle, an expanded graphite flake, an acetylene black particle, or a combination thereof.
 8. The lithium secondary battery of claim 7, wherein said electrically conducting material has a thickness or diameter less than 100 nm.
 9. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer further contains a lithium salt dispersed therein and said lithium salt is selected from lithium perchlorate, LiClO₄, lithium hexafluorophosphate, LiPF₆, lithium borofluoride, LiBF₄, lithium hexafluoroarsenide, LiAsF₆, lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate, LiCF₃SO₃, bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium, LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂, lithium bis(oxalato)borate, LiBOB, lithium oxalyldifluoroborate, LiBF₂C₂O₄, lithium oxalyldifluoroborate, LiBF₂C₂O₄, lithium nitrate, LiNO₃, Li-Fluoroalkyl-Phosphates, LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃, lithium bisperfluoroethysulfonylimide, LiBETI, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulphonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulphonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide, LiTFSI, an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.
 10. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer is mixed with an electron-conducting polymer selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.
 11. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein the high-elasticity polymer forms a mixture or blend with a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), Polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), Poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazenex, Polyvinyl chloride, Polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.
 12. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said thin layer of high-elasticity polymer has a thickness from 1 nm to 1 μm.
 13. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said thin layer of high-elasticity polymer has a thickness less than 100 nm.
 14. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said thin layer of high-elasticity polymer has a thickness less than 10 nm.
 15. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer has a lithium ion conductivity from 10⁻⁴ S/cm to 10⁻² S/cm.
 16. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said cathode active material is selected from an inorganic material, an organic material, a polymeric material, or a combination thereof, and said inorganic material does not include sulfur or alkali metal polysulfide.
 17. The lithium secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from a metal oxide, metal phosphate, metal silicide, metal selenide, transition metal sulfide, or a combination thereof.
 18. The lithium secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from a lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphate, lithium metal silicide, or a combination thereof.
 19. The lithium secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from a metal fluoride or metal chloride including the group consisting of CoF₃, MnF₃, FeF₃, VF₃, VOF₃, TiF₃, BiF₃, NiF₂, FeF₂, CuF₂, CuF, SnF₂, AgF, CuCl₂, FeCl₃, MnCl₂, and combinations thereof.
 20. The lithium secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from a lithium transition metal silicate, denoted as Li₂MSiO₄ or Li₂Ma_(x)Mb_(y)SiO₄, wherein M and Ma are selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, or VO; Mb is selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, Ti, Al, B, Sn, or Bi; and x+y≤1.
 21. The lithium secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, or a combination thereof.
 22. The lithium secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from TiS₂, TaS₂, MoS₂, NbSe₃, MnO₂, CoO₂, an iron oxide, a vanadium oxide , or a combination thereof.
 23. The lithium secondary battery of claim 17, wherein said metal oxide contains a vanadium oxide selected from the group consisting of VO₂, Li_(x)VO₂, V₂O₅, Li_(x)V₂O₅, V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₇, V₄O₉, Li_(x)V₄O₉, V₆O₁₃, Li_(x)V₆O₁₃, their doped versions, their derivatives, and combinations thereof, wherein 0.1<x<5.
 24. The lithium secondary battery of claim 17, wherein said metal oxide or metal phosphate is selected from a layered compound LiMO₂, spinel compound LiM₂O₄, olivine compound LiMPO₄, silicate compound Li₂MSiO₄, Tavorite compound LiMPO₄F, borate compound LiMBO₃, or a combination thereof, wherein M is a transition metal or a mixture of multiple transition metals.
 25. The lithium secondary battery of claim 17, wherein said inorganic material is selected from: (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, or (e) a combination thereof.
 26. The lithium secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said organic material or polymeric material is selected from Poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (PAQS), a lithium oxocarbon, 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide), pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PYT), polymer-bound PYT, Quino(triazene), redox-active organic material, Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexamethoxytriphenylene (HMTP), poly(5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone) (PADAQ), phosphazene disulfide polymer ([(NPS₂)₃]n), lithiated 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetraol formaldehyde polymer, Hexaazatrinaphtylene (HATN), Hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT(CN)₆), 5-Benzylidene hydantoin, Isatine lithium salt, Pyromellitic diimide lithium salt, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone derivatives (THQLi₄), N,N′-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PHP), N,N′-diallyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (AP), N,N′-dipropyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PRP), a thioether polymer, a quinone compound, 1,4-benzoquinone, 5,7,12,14-pentacenetetrone (PT), 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADDAQ), 5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADAQ), calixquinone, Li₄C₆O₆, Li₂C₆O₆, Li₆C₆O₆, or a combination thereof.
 27. The lithium secondary battery of claim 26, wherein said thioether polymer is selected from Poly[methanetetryl-tetra(thiomethylene)] (PMTTM), Poly(2,4-dithiopentanylene) (PDTP), a polymer containing Poly(ethene-1,1,2,2-tetrathiol) (PETT) as a main-chain thioether polymers, a side-chain thioether polymer having a main-chain consisting of conjugating aromatic moieties, and having a thioether side chain as a pendant, Poly(2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane) (PPDT), Poly(1,4-di(1,3-dithiolan-2-yl)benzene) (PDDTB), poly(tetrahydrobenzodithiophene) (PTHBDT), poly[1,2,4,5-tetrakis(propylthio)benzene] (PTKPTB, or poly[3,4(ethylenedithio)thiophene] (PEDTT).
 28. The lithium secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said organic material contains a phthalocyanine compound selected from copper phthalocyanine, zinc phthalocyanine, tin phthalocyanine, iron phthalocyanine, lead phthalocyanine, nickel phthalocyanine, vanadyl phthalocyanine, fluorochromium phthalocyanine, magnesium phthalocyanine, manganous phthalocyanine, dilithium phthalocyanine, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride, cadmium phthalocyanine, chlorogallium phthalocyanine, cobalt phthalocyanine, silver phthalocyanine, a metal-free phthalocyanine, a chemical derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.
 29. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said cathode active material is in a form of nanoparticle, nanowire, nanofiber, nanotube, nanosheet, nanobelt, nanoribbon, nanodisc, nanoplatelet, or nanohorn having a thickness or diameter from 0.5 nm to 100 nm.
 30. The lithium secondary battery of claim 29, wherein said nanoparticle, nanowire, nanofiber, nanotube, nanosheet, nanobelt, nanoribbon, nanodisc, nanoplatelet, or nanohorn is coated with or embraced by a conductive protective coating selected from a carbon material, graphene, electronically conductive polymer, conductive metal oxide, or conductive metal coating.
 31. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said high-elasticity polymer is a neat polymer having no additive or filler dispersed therein.
 32. The lithium secondary battery of claim 1, which is a lithium-sulfur battery, wherein said cathode comprises sulfur, a sulfur-containing molecule, a sulfur-containing compound, a metal sulfide, a sulfur-carbon polymer, a lithium polysulfide, a sulfur/carbon hybrid or composite, a sulfur/graphite hybrid or composite, a sulfur/graphene hybrid or composite, a sulfur-polymer compound, or a combination thereof.
 33. The lithium battery of claim 1, which is a lithium metal battery, lithium-sulfur battery, lithium-selenium battery, or lithium-air battery.
 34. A method of manufacturing a lithium battery, said method comprising: (a) providing a cathode active material layer and an optional cathode current collector to support said cathode active material layer; (b) providing a lithium metal or lithium alloy foil or coating and an optional anode current collector to support said foil or coating; (c) providing an electrolyte and an optional separator electrically separating the anode and the cathode; and (d) providing an anode-protective layer of a high-elasticity polymer disposed between said lithium metal or lithium alloy foil or coating and said electrolyte or separator, wherein said high-elasticity polymer has a recoverable tensile elastic strain from 2% to 1,500%, a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10⁻⁶ S/cm at room temperature, and a thickness from 0.5 nm to 10 μm, wherein said high-elasticity polymer contains a polyrotaxane network having a rotaxane structure or a polyrotaxane structure at a crosslink point of said polyrotaxane network.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein said rotaxane structure or polyrotaxane structure is selected from rotaxane, a chemically modified rotaxane (rotaxane derivative), a polymer-grafted rotaxane, polyrotaxane, a co-polymer of polyrotaxane, a graft polymer of polyrotaxane, a polymer blend of polymer of polyrotaxane, a chemically modified polyrotaxane, or a combination thereof.
 36. The method of claim 34, wherein said polyrotaxane network contains a polymer selected from polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, polyethylene oxide, polypropylene oxide, poly (succinic acid), an aliphatic polyester, or a combination thereof.
 37. The method of claim 34, wherein said polyrotaxane network contains a liquid that permeates into spaces inside said network.
 38. The method of claim 34, wherein said high-elasticity polymer contains from 0.1% to 50% by weight of a lithium ion-conducting material dispersed therein, or contains therein from 0.1% by weight to 10% by weight of a reinforcement nanofilament selected from carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, graphene, or a combination thereof.
 39. The method of claim 34, wherein said high-elasticity polymer is mixed with a lithium ion-conducting additive to form a composite wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive is dispersed in said high-elasticity polymer and is selected from Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, Li₂C₂O₄, LiOH, LiX, ROCO₂Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO₂Li)₂, (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂, Li₂S, Li_(x)SO_(y), or a combination thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1 and 1≤y≤4.
 40. The method of claim 34, wherein said high-elasticity polymer further contains an electrically conducting material dispersed therein and said electrically conducting material is selected from an electron-conducting polymer, a metal particle or wire, a graphene sheet, a carbon fiber, a graphite fiber, a carbon nanofiber, a graphite nanofiber, a carbon nanotube, a graphite particle, an expanded graphite flake, an acetylene black particle, or a combination thereof.
 41. The method of claim 38, wherein said lithium ion-conducting material is dispersed in said high-elasticity polymer and is selected from lithium perchlorate, LiClO₄, lithium hexafluorophosphate, LiPF₆, lithium borofluoride, LiBF₄, lithium hexafluoroarsenide, LiAsF₆, lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate, LiCF₃SO₃, bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium, LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂, lithium bis(oxalato)borate, LiBOB, lithium oxalyldifluoroborate, LiBF₂C₂O₄, lithium oxalyldifluoroborate, LiBF₂C₂O₄, lithium nitrate, LiNO₃, Li-Fluoroalkyl-Phosphates, LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃, lithium bisperfluoro-ethysulfonylimide, LiBETI, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulphonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulphonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide, LiTFSI, an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.
 42. The method of claim 34, wherein said step of providing a lithium metal coating supported by an anode current collector is conducted during a first charge operation of said battery. 